The income, market and asset approaches to valuing a private company, the methods inside each, when each fits and how valuers reconcile the results.

Why buyers pay less for businesses that depend on a few customers, how they measure concentration, and what owners can do to reduce the discount before a sale.

Control premiums, minority discounts and the discount for lack of marketability explained: what each adjusts for, how they stack and when they apply.

An earnout ties part of the purchase price to future results. Learn how earnouts are structured, why buyers propose them and how sellers can value the risk.

Learn which EBITDA add-backs buyers accept in a sale, which they reject, and how adjusted EBITDA changes enterprise value, with a worked illustration.

Enterprise value is the price of the business. Equity value is what owners receive after debt, debt-like items, cash and working capital. See the bridge.

How buyers measure owner dependence, why it lowers value and shapes deal structure, and what an owner can change in the years before a sale to reduce it.

The working capital peg sets the level of working capital a seller must leave in the business at closing. See how it is calculated, negotiated and adjusted.

A quality of earnings report tests whether a company's reported profit is real and repeatable. See what buyers examine, how it affects price and how sellers prepare.

Rollover equity and seller notes defer part of a sale price. Learn how each works, how their risks differ and what to ask before accepting either.

What valuation multiples are, how EV/EBITDA, EV/revenue and EV/EBIT work, what drives a higher or lower multiple, and how to use public data with care.

A transactional valuation estimates what a strategic or financial buyer would pay for a business. Learn what goes into one and how it differs from an appraisal.